List of states with nuclear weapons
This is a list of states with nuclear weapons. There are currently eight states that have successfully detonated nuclear weapons. Five are considered to be "nuclear weapons states", an internationally recognized status conferred by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons these are: the United States, Russia (successor state to the Soviet Union), the United Kingdom, France, and China. Since the formulation of the NPT, three non-signatory states of the NPT have conducted nuclear tests: India, Pakistan, and purportedly North Korea. Additionally, Israel is almost universally believed to possess nuclear warheads. Iran has been developing uranium enrichment technology and stands accused by the United States of doing so for weapons uses. Iran insists that its intentions are limited to domestic nuclear power generation, despite plutonium traces being detected. As of February 4, 2006, the International Atomic Energy Agency referred Iran to the United Nations Security Council in response to concerns on their possible nuclear programs.
Estimated worldwide nuclear stockpiles
The following is a list of nations that have admitted the possession of nuclear weapons, the approximate number of warheads under their control in 2002, and the year they tested their first weapon. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club". With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. Also, these figures represent total warheads possessed, rather than deployed. In particular, under the SORT treaty thousands of Russian and U.S. nuclear warheads are in inactive stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in nuclear reactors that drive nuclear power plants and some military submarines and warships.
From a high of 65,000 active weapons in 1985, there were about 20,000 active nuclear weapons in the world in 2002. Many of the "decommissioned" weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed.[1]
World map with
nuclear weapons development status represented by color.
██ Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT ██ Other known nuclear powers ██ States formerly possessing nuclear weapons ██ States suspected of being in the process of developing nuclear weapons and/or nuclear programs ██ States which at one point had nuclear weapons and/or nuclear weapons research programs ██ States that possess nuclear weapons, but have not widely adopted them ██ States without nuclear weapons *All numbers are estimates from the Natural Resources Defense Council, published in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, unless other references are given. If differences between active and total stockpile are known, they are given as two figures separated by a forward slash. If no specifics are known, only one figure is given. Stockpile number may not contain all intact warheads if a substantial amount of warheads are scheduled for but have not yet gone through dismantlement; not all "active" warheads are deployed at any given time. When a range of weapons is given (e.g., 0-10), it generally indicates that the estimate is being made on the amount of fissile material which has likely been produced, and the amount of fissile material needed per warhead depends on estimates of a country's proficiency at nuclear weapon design.
Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT
An early stage in the "
Trinity" fireball, the first nuclear explosion.
The USSR tested its first nuclear weapon ("Joe-1") in 1949, in a crash project developed partially with espionage obtained during and after World War II (see: Soviet atomic bomb project). The direct motivation for their weapons development was the development of a balance of power during the Cold War. It tested a primitive hydrogen bomb in 1953 ("Joe-4") and a megaton-range hydrogen bomb in 1955 ("RDS-37"). The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("Tsar Bomba"), which had a yield of 100 megatons, but was intentionally reduced to 50. After its dissolution in 1991, its weapons entered officially into the possession of 
Russia.
The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon ("Hurricane") in 1952, drawing largely on data gained while collaborating with the United States during the Manhattan Project. Its program was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the USSR, while also remaining relevant in Cold War Europe. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957. It maintains the Trident fleet of nuclear weapon submarines.
France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 ("Gerboise Bleue"), based mostly on its own research aided by indirect British help[citations needed]. It was motivated by the will of independence vis-à-vis the United States confirmed with France's loosening of ties to NATO, and as an independent deterrent against the USSR. It was also relevant to retain great power status, along side the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War (see: Force de frappe). France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 ("Opération Canopus"). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal which has now evolved to a dual system based on submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SSBN) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles (Rafale bombers). However new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during Enduring Freedom operation in Afghanistan. In January 2006, president Jacques Chirac officially stated a terrorist act or the use of weapons of mass destruction against France would result in a nuclear counterattack [12]. The Charles de Gaulle is currently the last carrier with nuclear weapons deployed by a country.
China tested its first nuclear weapon in 1964. China was the first Asian nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the USSR. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1967 at Lop Nur. The country is currently thought to have had a stockpile of around 130 warheads.[13]
Other known nuclear powers
An Indian Agni-II intermediate range ballistic missile displayed at the Republic Day Parade 2004.
(Photo: Antônio Milena/ABr) 
India has never been a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. It tested a "peaceful nuclear device", as it was described by the Indian government, in 1974 ("Smiling Buddha"), the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes (dual-use technology). It appears to have been primarily motivated as a deterrent against China. It tested weaponized nuclear warheads in 1998 ("Operation Shakti"), including a thermonuclear device (though whether the latter was fully successful is a matter of some contention).[14] In July 2005, it was officially recognized by the United States as a "a responsible state with advanced nuclear technology" and agreed to full nuclear cooperation between the two nations.[15] This is seen as a tacit entry into the nuclear club of the above nations. In March 2006, a civil nuclear cooperation deal was signed between President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. This deal, ratified by United States Congress and United States Senate in December 2006 would pave the path for the United States and other members of the Nuclear Suppliers Group to sell civilian nuclear technology to India. The country is currently thought to have had a stockpile of around 40-50 warheads.[16]
Pakistan is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over many decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near Karachi with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. After the detonation of a nuclear bomb by India, the country started its own nuclear weapons development program and established secret, mostly underground, nuclear facilities near the capital Islamabad. It is believed that Pakistan already had nuclear weapons capability by the end of the 1980s. However, this was to remain speculative until 1998 when Pakistan conducted its first nuclear tests at the Chagai Hills, in reply to the Nuclear tests conducted by India a few days before.
North Korea was a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced a withdrawal on January 10, 2003 and did so that April. In February 2005 they claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. However, in October 2006, North Korea stated that due to growing intimidation by the USA, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on October 9, 2006. Most U.S. intelligence officials believe that North Korea did, in fact, test a nuclear device due to radioactive isotopes detected by U.S. aircraft; however, most agree that the test was probably only partially successful, having less than a kiloton in yield.[17]
Suspected nuclear states
Countries believed to have at least one nuclear weapon, but which have not officially admitted to the possession of nuclear weapons.
Israel - Israel is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and refuses to officially confirm or deny having a nuclear arsenal, or to having developed nuclear weapons, or even to having a nuclear weapons program. Although Israel claims that the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona is a "research reactor," (since the late 50')no scientific reports based on work done there have ever been published. Extensive information about the program in Dimona was also disclosed by technician Mordechai Vanunu in 1986. In an apparent slip, Israel's Prime Minister Ehud Olmert admitted in an interview that Israel was among the countries that possessed nuclear weapons. According to some estimates, it possesses as many as 400-500 nuclear warheads. Imagery analysts can identify weapon bunkers, mobile missile launchers, and launch sites in satellite photographs. Israel may have tested a nuclear weapon along with South Africa in 1979, but this has never been confirmed (see Vela Incident). According to the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Federation of American Scientists, Israel possesses around 200 weapons.[18]
States suspected of having clandestine nuclear programs
The question of whether individual states without nuclear weapons are trying to develop them is often a controversial one. Accusations of clandestine nuclear programs are often vehemently denied, and may be politically motivated themselves, or simply erroneous. Below are countries who have been accused by a number of governments and intergovernmental agencies as currently attempting to develop nuclear weapons technology who are not suspected as yet having developed it.
Iran - Iran signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and says its interest in nuclear technology, including enrichment, was for civilian purposes only (a right guaranteed under the treaty), but the United States of America's CIA and a few other western countries, mainly the United Kingdom [citation needed] suspect that this is a cover for a nuclear weapons program, claiming that Iran has little need to develop nuclear power domestically and that it has consistently chosen nuclear options which were dual-use technology rather than those which could only be used for power generation.[19] Former Iranian Foreign Minister Kamal Kharrazi stated on the intentions of his country's nuclear ambitions: "Iran will develop nuclear power abilities and these have to be recognized by the treaties."[20] As of February 4, 2006, the International Atomic Energy Agency referred Iran to the United Nations Security Council in response to Western concerns on their possible nuclear programs. On April 11, 2006, Iran's president announced that the country had successfully enriched uranium to reactor-grade levels for the first time. On April 22, 2006, Iran's envoy to the U.N. nuclear watchdog agency stated the Islamic republic had reached a "basic deal" with the Kremlin to form a joint uranium enrichment venture on Russian territory.[21]
Saudi Arabia - In 2003, members of the government stated that due to the worsening relations with the USA, Saudi Arabia was being forced to consider the development of nuclear weapons; however, so far they have denied that they are making any attempt to produce them.[22] It has been rumoured that Pakistan has transferred several nuclear weapons to Saudi Arabia, but this is unconfirmed.[23] In March 2006, the German magazine Cicero reported that Saudi Arabia had since 2003 received assistance from Pakistan to acquire nuclear missiles and warheads. Satellite photos allegedly reveal an underground city and nuclear silos with Ghauri rockets south of the capital Riyadh.[24] Pakistan has denied aiding Saudi Arabia in any nuclear ambitions.[25]
States formerly possessing nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only a few instances have nations given up nuclear weapons after being in control of them; in most cases this has been because of special political circumstances. The fall of the USSR, for example, left several former Soviet-bloc countries in possession of nuclear weapons.
South Africa – South Africa produced six nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but disassembled them in the early 1990s. In 1979 there was a putative detection of a clandestine nuclear test in the Indian Ocean, and it has long been speculated that it was potentially a test by South Africa, perhaps in collaboration with Israel, though this has never been confirmed (see Vela Incident). South Africa signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991.[26]
Former Soviet countries
Belarus – Belarus had 81 single warhead missiles stationed in their territory after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. They were all transferred to Russia by 1996. Belarus signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[27]
Kazakhstan – Kazakhstan inherited 1,400 nuclear weapons from the Soviet Union, and transferred them all to Russia by 1995. Kazakhstan has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[28]
Ukraine - Ukraine has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Ukraine inherited about 5,000 nuclear weapons when it became independent from the USSR in 1991, making its nuclear arsenal the third-largest in the world.[29] By 1996, Ukraine had voluntarily disposed of all nuclear weapons within its territory, transferring them to Russia.[30]
States formerly possessing nuclear programs
These are nations known to have initiated serious nuclear weapons programs, with varying degrees of success. All of them are now regarded as currently no longer actively developing, or possessing, nuclear arms. All of the listed countries (or their descendants) signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Argentina – Argentina created its National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA) in 1950 for developing and controlling nuclear energy for peaceful purposes in the country but conducted a nuclear weapon research program under military rule of 1978, at a time when it had signed, but not ratified, the Treaty of Tlatelolco. This program was abandoned after democratization in 1983.[31] However, unofficial reports and U.S. intelligence postulate that Argentina continued some kind of nuclear weapons program during the 1980s (as an attempt to build a nuclear submarine), mainly because of rivalry with Brazil[32] but the program was cancelled. In the early 1990s, Argentina and Brazil established a bilateral inspection agency to verify both countries' pledges to use nuclear energy only for peaceful purposes and on February 10, 1995, Argentina acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Australia – Following World War II, Australian defence policy initiated joint nuclear weapons development with the United Kingdom. Australia provided uranium, land for weapons and rocket tests, and scientific and engineering expertise. Canberra was also heavily involved in the Blue Streak ballistic missile program. In 1955, a contract was signed with a British company to build the Hi-Flux Australian Reactor (HIFAR). HIFAR was considered the first step toward the construction of larger reactors capable of producing substantial volumes of plutonium for nuclear weapons. However, Australia's nuclear ambitions were abandoned by the 1960s, and the country signed the NPT in 1970 (ratified in 1973).[33]
Brazil – Military régime conducted a nuclear weapon research program (code-named "Solimões") to acquire nuclear weapons in 1978, in spite of having ratified the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968. When an elected government came in to power in 1985, though, the program was ended.[34] On July 13, 1998 President Fernando Henrique Cardoso signed and ratified both the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), denying that Brazil had developed nuclear weapons.[35]
Egypt – Had a nuclear weapon research program from 1954 to 1967. Egypt has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[36]
Nazi Germany – During World War II, Nazi Germany researched possibilities to develop a nuclear weapon; however, for multiple reasons subject to some controversy, the project was not nearing completion at the end of the war. The research site was sabotaged by British spies and Norwegian partisans, which slowed down their research (see Norwegian heavy water sabotage). Historian Rainer Karlsch, in his 2005 book Hitlers Bombe, has suggested that the Nazis may have tested some sort of "atom bomb" in Thuringia in the last year of the war; it may have been a radiological weapon (rather than a fission weapon), though little reliable evidence of this has surfaced. Some of the German scientists involved also claimed to have sabotaged or falsely reported failures due to personal moral disagreement with Nuclear bomb development (See: German nuclear energy project).
Iraq – Iraq has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. They had a nuclear weapon research program during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1981, Israel destroyed Iraqi nuclear reactor Osiraq. In 1996, the UN's Hans Blix reported that Iraq had dismantled or destroyed all of their nuclear capabilities. In 2003, a multinational coalition headed by the United States invaded Iraq based on assertions indicating that it possessed weapons prohibited by the UN Security Council. Because of its refusal to fully cooperate with UN inspections, Iraq was strongly suspected by two UNSC members of having some form of nuclear program. However, in 2004 the Duelfer Report concluded Iraq's nuclear program was terminated in 1991.[37]
Japan – Japan conducted research into nuclear weapons during World War II though made little headway.[38] (see Japanese atomic program). Japan signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. While Japan has the technological capabilities to develop nuclear weapons in a short time there is no evidence they are doing so. Although Japan's constitution does not forbid it from producing nuclear weapons, the country has been active in promoting non-proliferation treaties. There exists some suspicion that nuclear weapons may be located in US bases in Japan.[39] Japan is also the only nation in the world against whom nuclear weapons have been used in wartime, the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki having been destroyed on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively.
Libya – Signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. On December 19, 2003, after the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq and the October 2003 interception of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia (as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring), Libya admitted to possessing a nuclear weapon program and simultaneously announced its intention to end it and dismantle all existing weapons of mass destruction to be verified by unconditional inspections.[40]
Poland – Nuclear research began in Poland in the early 1960s, with the first controlled nuclear fission reaction being achieved in the late 1960s. During the 1970s further research resulted in the generation of fusion neutrons through convergent shockwaves. In the 1980s research focused on the development of micro-nuclear reactions, and was under military control. Currently Poland operates the MARIA nuclear research reactor under the control of the Institute of Atomic Energy, in Świerk near Warsaw. Poland has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and officially possesses no nuclear weapons.
Romania – Signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1970. In spite of this, under Nicolae Ceauşescu, in the 1980s, Romania had a secret nuclear-weapons development program that was ended after his overthrow in 1989. Now Romania runs a nuclear power plant of two reactor units (with three more under construction) built with Canadian support. It also mines and enriches its own uranium for the plant and has a research program.[41]
South Korea began a nuclear weapons program in the early 1970s, which was believed abandoned after signing NPT in 1975. However there have been allegations that program may have been continued after this date by the military government.[42] In late 2004, the South Korean government disclosed to the IAEA that scientists in South Korea had extracted plutonium in 1982 and enriched uranium to near-weapons grade in 2000.
Sweden – During the 1950s and 1960s, Sweden seriously investigated nuclear weapons, intended to be deployed over coastal facilities of an invading enemy (the Soviet Union). A very substantial research effort of weapon design and manufacture was conducted resulting in enough knowledge to allow Sweden to manufacture nuclear weapons. A weapon research facility was to be built in Studsvik. Saab made plans for a supersonic nuclear bomber, the A36.[citation needed] However Sweden decided not to pursue a weapon production program and signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Switzerland – Between 1946 and 1969 Switzerland had a secret nuclear program that came to light in 1995. By 1963 theoretical basics with detailed technical proposals, specific arsenals, and cost estimates for Swiss nuclear armaments were made. This program was, however, abandoned partly because of financial costs and by signing the NPT on November 27, 1969.[43]
Yugoslavia
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's nuclear ambitions began as early as 1950s when scientists considered both uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing. In 1956, the Vinča fuel reprocessing site was constructed, followed by research reactors in 1958 and 1959, for which the Soviets provided heavy water and enriched uranium. In 1966, plutonium reprocessing tests began in Vinča laboratories, resulting in gram quantities of reprocessed plutonium. During the 1950s and 1960s there was also cooperation in plutonium processing between Yugoslavia and Norway. In 1960 Tito froze the nuclear program for unknown reasons, but restarted it, after India's first nuclear tests, in 1974. The program continued even after Tito's death in 1980, divided into two components – for weapons design and civilian nuclear energy, until a decision to stop all nuclear weapons research was made in July 1987. The civilian nuclear program however resulted in a nuclear power plant Krško built in 1983, now co-owned by Slovenia and Croatia, and used for peaceful production of electricity.
Other nuclear-capable states
Virtually any industrialized nation today has the technical capability to develop nuclear weapons within several years if the decision to do so were made. Nations already possessing substantial nuclear technology and arms industries could do so in no more than a year or two, perhaps even as fast as a few months or weeks, if they so decided to. The larger industrial nations (Japan, Germany, Italy, Australia and Canada for example) could, within several years of deciding to do so, build arsenals rivaling those of the states that already have nuclear weapons. This list below mentions some notable capabilities possessed by certain states that could potentially be turned to the development of nuclear arsenals. This list represents only strong nuclear capability, not the political will to develop weapons. All of the listed countries have signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Canada - Canada has a well developed advanced nuclear technology base, large uranium reserves and markets reactors for civilian use. Through extensive power generation and production capabilities, Canada has the technological capabilities to develop nuclear weapons, possessing large amounts of plutonium through power generation. Canada could develop nuclear weapons within a short period of time if attempted. While no nuclear weapons program existed, Canada was technically well placed to proceed with a program as early as 1945 if they wished to do so.[46] Canada has been an important contributor of both expertise and raw materials to the American program in the past, and assisted in the Manhattan Project. In 1959, NATO proposed that the RCAF assume a nuclear strike role in Europe. Thus in 1962 six Canadian CF-104 squadrons based in Europe were formed into the RCAF Nuclear Strike Force armed with B28 nuclear bombs (originally Mk 28) under the NATO nuclear weapons sharing program; the Force was disbanded in 1972 when Canada opted out of the nuclear strike role. Canada accepted having American W-40 nuclear warheads under dual key control on Canadian soil in 1963 to be used on the Canadian BOMARC missiles. The Canadian air force also maintained a stockpile of AIR-2 Genie unguided nuclear air-to-air rockets as the primary wartime weapon on the CF-101 Voodoo all-weather interceptor after 1965. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau declared Canada would be a nuclear weapon-free country in 1971, and the last American warheads were withdrawn in 1984. Canada gave India its first research reactor, the CIRUS, in 1956 and this reactor was used to make the nuclear material used in India's first nuclear device. Canada also produces the renowned CANDU reactor and has sold the technology to several countries, including China, South Korea, India, Romania, Argentina, and Pakistan. However, there is no credible evidence that CANDU reactors were used to breed weapons grade material for either India or Pakistan. Canada nevertheless cut off nuclear trade with those two countries after they detonated nuclear weapons.
Germany - While Germany is a signatory of the NPT, it has the means to equip itself rapidly with nuclear weapons. It has an advanced nuclear industry capable of manufacturing reactors, enriching uranium, fuel fabrication, and fuel reprocessing and it operates 19 power reactors producing one third of its total electrical needs. On the other hand, Germany has since 1945 made no serious attempts of acquiring or developing its own strategic delivery systems. Considerable numbers of nuclear weapons have been stationed both in East and West Germany during the Cold War, starting as early as 1955. Under the nuclear sharing scheme, West German soldiers would in theory have been authorized to use nuclear weapons provided by the US in event of a massive Warsaw Pact attack. Several dozen such weapons reputedly remain on bases in western Germany. Since 1998, Germany has adopted a policy of eliminating nuclear power, although slow progress had been made.[47] On January 26, 2006, the former defence minister, Rupert Scholz, said that Germany may need to build its own nuclear weapons to counter terrorist threats.[48] The Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany also specified that Germany wouldn't acquire nuclear weapons.
- Japan - Japan makes extensive use of nuclear energy in nuclear reactors, generating a significant percentage of the electricity in Japan. Japan has the third largest nuclear energy production after the U.S. and France, and plans to produce over 40% of its electricity using nuclear power by 2010. Significant amounts of plutonium are created as a by-product of the energy production, and Japan had 4.7 tons of plutonium in December 1995. Japan also has its own centrifuge-based uranium enrichment program, which could also be used to create highly enriched uranium suitable for bombs. Experts believe Japan has the technology, raw materials, and the capital to produce nuclear weapons within one year if necessary, and some analysts consider it a "de facto" nuclear state for this reason. Japan has been quietly reconsidering its nuclear status because of the ongoing crisis over North Korean nuclear weapons.[49]
Italy - Italy has operated a number of nuclear reactors, both for power and for research. The country was also a base for the Jupiter missile in the 1960s and later the GLCM nuclear-armed ground-launched variant of the Tomahawk cruise missile during the 1980s, despite strong public outcry. Several warheads are still in the NATO arsenal in Italy, mostly in form of airplane bombs. While no evidence suggests that Italy intends to develop or deploy nuclear weapons, such a capability exists - estimates from as far back as the mid-80s show that Italy could begin and complete a nuclear weapons program in as little as one year.
Lithuania - Nuclear power reactors produce 77% of Lithuania's electricity and it has 2 of the world's most powerful reactors in its territory. However, one of these reactors was recently shut down. Lithuania has the means of legally acquiring fissile materials for power plants. Lithuania also has former launch sites for Soviet Union missiles. However, there appears to be no political will to develop nuclear weapons in Lithuania.
The Netherlands - Operates a power reactor at Borsele, producing 452 MW, which satisfies 5% of its electrical needs and has an advanced nuclear research and medical isotopes facility at Petten. Several Dutch companies are key participants in the tri-national Urenco uranium enrichment consortium. By 2000 the Netherlands had about 2 tons of separated reactor grade plutonium. Even though the capability exists, there is no evidence for nuclear weapon production in the Netherlands. Also, in the light of the fierce opposition against nuclear weapon deployment in the 1980s, it is highly unlikely that such a programme will ever exist.
Norway - Has since the 1950s operated two scientific reactors at Kjeller and Halden, and there are currently no known plans for constructing new reactors. According to environmental organization Bellona, Norway exported equipment and technology for plutonium enrichment and heavy water for use in reactors to India and Israel during the 1960s, contributing to their nuclear ambitions.[50] It is estimated Norway could complete a nuclear weapons program in a year with adequate funding, but public opposition to nuclear weapons is considerable.
- Australia - Australia has operated the HiFAR scientific & medical reactor since the 1960's. This reactor has been recently decommissioned and is about to be replaced with a new indigenously designed and constructed reactor. Australia was also the site of a number of UK nuclear tests in the 1950's and 1960's. Australia has repeatedly stated that it has no interest or intent to develop nuclear weapons and is a signatory to the NPT.
See also
Notes
- ^ Webster, Paul (July/August 2003). "Just like old times," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 59:4: 30-35. [1]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "U.S. nuclear forces, 2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:1 (January/February 2005): 68-71, [2]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Russian nuclear forces, 2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62:2 (March/April 2006): 64-67, [3]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "British nuclear forces, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:6 (November/December 2005): 77-79, [4]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "French nuclear forces, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:4 (July/August 2005): 73-75,[5]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Chinese nuclear forces, 2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62:3 (May/June 2006): 60-63, [6]; Lewis, Jeffery. "The ambiguous arsenal," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:3 (May/June 2005): 52-59. [7].
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "India's nuclear forces, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:5 (September/October 2005): 73-75,[8]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Pakistan's nuclear forces, 2001," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58:1 (January/February 2002): 70-71,[9]
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "North Korea's nuclear program, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:3 (May/June 2005): 64-67,[10]
- ^ globalsecurity.org. Nuclear Weapons Testing - North Korean Statements
- ^ Harold Hough. "Could Israel's nuclear assets survive a pre-emptive strike?" Jane's (Janury 1997) [11]
- ^ France 'would use nuclear arms' (BBC, Jan. 2006)
- ^ Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "Chinese nuclear forces, 2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62:3 (May/June 2006): 60-63, [12]; Lewis, Jeffery. "The ambiguous arsenal," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:3 (May/June 2005): 52-59. [13].
- ^ India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Operation Shakti: 1998.
- ^ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (carnegieendowment.org), Proliferation Analysis: A Nuclear Triumph for India
- ^ CNN Story on civil nuclear deal between United States and India, Bush to approve India nuclear deal
- ^ See 2006 North Korean nuclear test for the latest detailed information and citations.
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (August 17, 2000) Israel's Nuclear Weapons
- ^ Nuclear Threat Initiative (nti.org) Iran: Nuclear Chronology; Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (June 16, 2005). Iran - Nuclear Weapons Recent Developments
- ^ Fox News (June 12, 2004). Iran Wants to Be Part of 'Nuclear Club'
- ^ CBS News (April 22, 2006). Iran To Enrich Uranium In Russia
- ^ The Guardian (September 18, 2003). Saudis consider nuclear bomb
- ^ Akaki Dvali. Center for Nonproliferation Studies (nti.org) (March 2004). Will Saudi Arabia Acquire Nuclear Weapons?; Arnaud de Borchgrave. Washington Times (October 22, 2003) Pakistan, Saudi Arabia in secret nuke pact
- ^ "Saudia [sic] Arabia working on secret nuclear program with Pakistan help - report ", AFX News[14]
- ^ "Pakistan rejects report on N-help to Saudis", Daily Times (Pakistan), (30 March 2006).
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (May 29, 2000). Nuclear Weapons Program (South Africa)
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Belarus Special Weapons
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Kazakhstan Special Weapons
- ^ globalsecurity.org. Ukraine Special Weapons
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Ukraine Special Weapons
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (October 2, 1999). Nuclear Weapons Program - (Argentina)
- ^ Sharon Squassoni and David Fite, "Brazil's Nuclear History", Arms Control Today (October 2005); Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (October 2, 1999). Nuclear Weapons Programs - (Brazil)
- ^ Green Left Weekly (March 21, 2001). Review of Australia and the atomic empire
- ^ Sharon Squassoni and David Fite, "Brazil's Nuclear History", Arms Control Today (October 2005).
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (October 2, 1999). Nuclear Weapons Programs - (Brazil)
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (February 4, 2005). Nuclear Weapons Program - (Egypt)
- ^ Nuclear Threat Initiative (nti.org) (May 2005). Iraq profile - Nuclear Overview
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (April 16, 2000) Nuclear Weapons Program - Japan
- ^ Nuclear Threat Initiative (nti.org) (May 2005). Japan Overview
- ^ Nuclear Threat Initiative (nti.org) (February 2006). Libya Nuclear Overview
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org). Romania Special Weapons
- ^ Nuclear Threat Initiative (nti.org) (August 2003). South Korea Overview
- ^ Jurg Stussi, Historical Outline on the Question of Swiss Nuclear Armament (April 1996).
- ^ Federation of American Scientists (fas.org) (April 4, 2000). Taiwan Nuclear Weapons
- ^ Defense Department memorandum of conversation (April 12 1974). "Call by Ambassador (Leonard) Unger"
- ^ Canada's Nuclear Story, (Harrap Research Publications, London, 1966), chapter 12
- ^ Carey Sublette. "Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions" nuclearweaponarchive.org (August 2001)
- ^ "Germany May Need Own Nuclear Weapons: Scholz" by DPA, Liberty Post, January 26, 2006
- ^ Washington Times (August 8, 2005). North Korean threat nudges Japan to rethink nukes
- ^ From homepage of the Bellona Foundation (in Norwegian), [15]
United States
Russia (formerly the Soviet Union)
United Kingdom
France
China
India
Pakistan
North Korea
Israel
The United States of America developed the first atomic weapons during World War II in co-operation with the United Kingdom and Canada, out of the fear that Nazi Germany would develop them first. It tested its first nuclear weapon in 1945 ("Trinity"), and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons against another nation, during the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see: Manhattan Project). It was the first nation to develop the hydrogen bomb, testing it ("Ivy Mike") in 1952 and a deployable version in 1954 ("Castle Bravo").
The Republic of China (Taiwan) – Conducted a covert nuclear weapon research program from 1964 until 1988 when it was stopped as a result of U.S. pressure.[44] Taiwan signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968. According to a previously classified 1974 U.S. Defense Department memorandum, Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger expressed a view during a meeting with Ambassador Leonard Unger that U.S. nuclear weapons housed in Taiwan needed to be withdrawn.[45]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia inherited the Vinča laboratories and 50 kilograms of highly enriched uranium stored at the site. During the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, Vinča was never hit because NATO was aware of the HEU. After the end of NATO bombings the U.S. government and the Nuclear Threat Initiative transported the HEU to Russia – the place from which Yugoslavia originally acquired it.
